Last year I decided to dive headfirst into learning Italian in preparation for a trip I was taking to train with a chef there. Italian is the third language I’ve learned (behind English and Spanish), but I’ve dabbled in Portuguese, Chinese, French, and several others over the years. With Italian, I attempted to try out as many different language learning tools and apps as possible to figure out what really works.

Here are some thoughts:

The Goal Is Language Acquisition, Not Language Learning

In researching various approaches to language learning, I came across the excellent work of a linguist named Stephen Krashen. I recommend this YouTube video for a short introduction to his ideas (or just ask an LLM to explain them to you), which have been extremely influential on my thinking around languages.

Krashen distinguishes between the process of language learning (a conscious process) and language acquisition (a subconscious process). Everyone reading this acquired their first language— you didn’t study grammar or memorize vocabulary, you simply absorbed it through exposure. Krashen believes that language acquisition is an innate capacity that every human being has. According to him, it’s not even within our control to turn it off— with the right setting and exposure, you’ll simply acquire a language.

You’ll hear people say things like “I’m just not good at languages.” What they really mean is that they’re not good at learning languages. Consciously studying language rules and structure is largely ineffective for most people because it goes against the natural process of language acquisition. This is compounded by the fact that the conscious process, especially in a classroom environment, causes people to overthink and stress. The pressure to memorize and perform publicly produces anxiety in many people, which acts as a filter and actually weakens their capacity for learning.

Many of the great language teachers of the world emphasize this point— you shouldn’t try too hard to brute force memorization because you’ll just stress yourself out and impede your own progress. It’s slightly ironic, but I’ve found it to be true. No matter which approach you take to language learning, you should approach it casually, not overthink it, stop stressing about memorization, and focus more on overall exposure.

Krashen believes that the most effective way to acquire a language is through the use of comprehensible input; language you can understand but that is slightly beyond your level of proficiency. This means you’re getting exposure to the language with context that helps you understand generally what is being communicated. This can be done through video, audio, or reading, and ultimately this is the most important part of any language learning journey.

Build A Foundation, Then Focus On Comprehensible Input

While you can certainly dive straight into exposure and comprehensible input, I’ve personally found that this process is much more effective after I’ve established some kind of baseline competency. For this reason, my recommended approach is to use some combination of audio and vocabulary tools to get comfortable with the basics of the language, and then move towards maximum exposure via comprehensible input. While these audio and vocab tools are geared more towards language learning, I’ve found that the baseline they establish makes the comprehensible input step much easier.

Spaced Repetition Is Very Effective

Spaced repetition is a technique where a new word is introduced, and then that word is presented again and again at gradually increasing intervals. It’s an extremely effective technique. If a new word or phrase is introduced and re-introduced at the right cadence, it easily becomes “locked in” in your brain. Every app I used successfully, especially for vocabulary, makes use of spaced repetition.

Study Vocabulary In Context

Instead of studying single-word flash cards, use tools that allow you to study vocabulary in context (meaning the vocabulary words are presented in the context of a phrase or sentence). This approach is more effective than single-word flash cards for learning individual words, and it gives you additional material in the process.

Formal Grammar Is Overrated

I'm a grammar nerd, and I used to love learning grammar rules. I remember when I was studying Spanish growing up— I loved thinking about the different tenses and rules and conjugations. But as I started to learn Italian, I became more and more convinced that formal grammar rules are not all that important. Krashen makes a compelling argument that your brain naturally fills in/learns the rules with enough exposure. Sure, you can be nudged time to time about specific grammar (just as a mother might do with a child), but it's pointless to sit there and memorize specific rules.

This is especially clear to me when I speak in Spanish. I use the rules properly, but they just come to me as I'm speaking. I don't consciously think about them, and I can't even explain the rules I've used in most cases. Instead, with enough exposure my brain just knows that this is how a particular sentence should be structured.

I also think that focusing too much on grammar can come at the expense of the more important skill— learning how to communicate. If I have limited time to learn a language and my goal is to communicate while in that country, perfect grammar isn't important. "It’s for me this coffee?" is fine from a communication standpoint, even if it’s not perfectly grammatically correct.

Duolingo Isn’t Very Effective

Duolingo is the most popular language learning app in the world, but it’s just not very effective. Duolingo has mastered the gamification of language learning— earning points, maintaining streaks, etc— all of which makes it feel like you’re making progress, even if the actual learning is very minimal. I know a ton of people who use Duolingo religiously, and yet I know of almost nobody that effectively speaks another language because of it. A lot of people start there, but I’d skip it entirely.

My Favorite Tools

As I said before, I think the best course of action is to start by using language tools to establish a baseline foundation, and then focus on comprehensible input. I think that a combination of audio lessons (which include grammar, phrases, vocabulary, and pronunciation) and spaced repetition vocabulary tools is the best way to do this.

• For audio tools, I like Pimsleur, Language Transfer, and Michel Thomas. I’ve used Pimsleur the most of any of these, but they’re all quite good.

• For spaced repetition vocabulary tools, I like Lingvist and Memrise. These are both great because they make use of spaced repetition and also present vocabulary in context.

If I were just getting started, I’d commit to at least 30 minutes per day of audio lessons, as well as 50-100 words per day of exposure through vocabulary tools. Do that for a few months and you’ll build up a solid understanding of the basics of the language. From there, move towards getting as much comprehensible input as possible.

You can google comprehensible input materials for your target language— there are books, audio, and other materials specifically designed around this, and the best materials may differ depending on the structure of the language you’re learning. There’s a newer tool called Mother that’s built all around comprehensible input and is quite good. It offers daily short stories with audio, and the whole tool is based on Krashen’s methodology. I also like a tool called Clozemaster, but I’ve found it to be useful only once you have some baseline competency in the language.

All of this advice may ultimately be outdated in a year or two, since AI and LLM-based language tools will certainly be among the most effective ever created. I’ve been experimenting with using the voice setting on various LLMs (mostly ChatGPT) for practice with conversation, and it’s super useful. I imagine that not too far into the future, you’ll have a personalized AI language tutor that can help you with everything from conversation practice to customized comprehensible input. In the meantime, however, this approach is solid. Give it a try!